The far East was experiencing its own growth of philosophy and thinking. Buddhist monks had probably reached China by this time and some of the most significant philosophers made their appearance. Confucius (551 to 479 BCE) introduced a philosophy that combined ethics with religious traditions, a philosophy that would dominate Chinese political structure until the 20th century. At about the same time, we also see Laotze introducing a more sophisticated version of traditional nature worship called Taoism, in one of the greatest books ever written, the Tao te Ching. The Tao philosophy was to influence later Buddhism.
From 403 to 221 BCE, China was split into a number of warring states. In 221 BCE, the Ch'in dynasty established its rule. The Ch’in were great organisers and administrators. They began the task of building the Great Wall to keep out the invading Huns. The Ch’in were overtaken by the Han, who defeated the Hun and expanded Westwards, building new trade routes and establishing the longest and most persistent of them all, the Silk Road. This route joined sea routes as it wound its way across continents to Rome and further Westwards. Although there is little evidence of direct trade with the Chinese at this time, finds of Chinese Porcelain suggest that Chinese goods were reaching the South of India. They were certainly reaching Rome; the Emperor Augustus forbade the wearing of silk as a drain on Rome’s resources.
The connection with the East and West allowed for the free exchange of ideas and trade. The links between South India and the Empires of the Middle East were already strong. From 2000 BCE Arab traders, who were very cagey about the origins of their goods, imported spices, precious stones, cinnamon, ivory, pepper, ebony and sandalwood and sold them in Egypt and around the
Mediterranean. The great Assyrian rulers, Assurbanipal and Tiglath Pileser 111 recorded cotton and other common articles of South Indian origin, and there were records of imports of elephants, tiger and leopard skins, spices, gingelly oil and other commodities until the fall of Assyria in 600 BCE.
King Solomon, who reigned around 1950 BCE reputedly sent his fleet to India, and the fabled port of Ophir was said to be in the South of the continent. He did receive ivory and peacock feathers from somewhere, but he is also said to have had ships filled with gold, something not found in the South, and it is unlikely that gold from another country was being traded. However, it is likely that his fleet reached India and traded there, whether in the South or the North. The seas between India and the Middle East were known by most of the empires of the ancient world, and these empires must have been familiar to the populations of South India. Trade routes hugged the coasts and eventually connected with the great overland routes carrying tea and silk from China. Connections between the South Eastern coast and the West of the continent were hampered by the ridge of the Western Ghats, although the Palghat Gap allowed for some to-ing and fro-ing and was one of the routes goods to Madurai, the great trading town in what is now Tamil Nadu, would have taken.
In about 302 BCE Greek ambassadors, under their leader, Megisthenes visited the Ganges plain, and there is a tradition that he reached as far South as Madurai. The city, which was the centre of the Pandyan dynasty, sent representatives to Greece and Rome and trade flourished there. He wrote a four-volume book, Indika, which has been lost in its entirety. Fragments remain and it was quoted and interpreted by later scholars such as Pliny, Strabo and Aelian. They made little of the outrageous claims Megisthenes made about the people and fauna of India, and later geographers and historians discredited his accounts. Many of his strange descriptions might be a result of language and cultural problems, although explaining these creatures could prove difficult:
"Equally absurd is the account given of the Enotokoitai, of the wild men, and of other monsters. The wild men could not be brought to Sandrakottos, for they refused to, take food and died. Their heels are in front, and the instep and toes are turned backwards. Some were brought to the court who had no mouths and were tame. They dwell near the sources of the Ganges, and subsist on the savour of roasted flesh and the perfumes of fruits and flowers, having instead of mouths orifices through which they breathe. They are distressed with things of evil smell, and hence it is with difficulty they keep their hold on life, especially in a camp. Referring to the other monstrosities, the philosophers told him of the Okupedes, a people who in running could leave the horse behind; of the Enotokoitai, who had ears reaching down to their feet, so that they could sleep in them, and were so strong that they could pull up trees and break a bowstring. Of others the Monommatoi, who have the ears of a dog, their one eye set in the middle of their forehead, the hair standing erect, and their breasts shaggy; of the Amukteres also, a people without nostrils, who devour everything, eat raw meat, and are short-lived, and die before old age supervenes. The upper part of the mouth protrudes far over the lower lip. With regard to the Hyperboreans, who live a thousand years, they give the same account"
Strabo, from Megasthenes: Indika, Trans. J. W. McCrindle
Megisthenes also described the caste system of the Indians, describing seven castes and marvelling at the fact that there were no slaves. As these accounts percolated Westwards they established India as a place of mystery and strangeness. Within India itself, the Aryan culture was spreading South with the Mauryan kingdom, which had an aggressive policy of taking its superior way of life to the less- advantaged people elsewhere. In Madurai the Pandyan dynasty was jostling with the Chola and Chera for primacy in the great age of the Tamil Sangam.
From 403 to 221 BCE, China was split into a number of warring states. In 221 BCE, the Ch'in dynasty established its rule. The Ch’in were great organisers and administrators. They began the task of building the Great Wall to keep out the invading Huns. The Ch’in were overtaken by the Han, who defeated the Hun and expanded Westwards, building new trade routes and establishing the longest and most persistent of them all, the Silk Road. This route joined sea routes as it wound its way across continents to Rome and further Westwards. Although there is little evidence of direct trade with the Chinese at this time, finds of Chinese Porcelain suggest that Chinese goods were reaching the South of India. They were certainly reaching Rome; the Emperor Augustus forbade the wearing of silk as a drain on Rome’s resources.
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| http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat2/sub90/item50.html |
The connection with the East and West allowed for the free exchange of ideas and trade. The links between South India and the Empires of the Middle East were already strong. From 2000 BCE Arab traders, who were very cagey about the origins of their goods, imported spices, precious stones, cinnamon, ivory, pepper, ebony and sandalwood and sold them in Egypt and around the
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| A sturdy-looking Phonecian ship http://exploration.marinersmuseum.org/watercraft/phoenician-ships/ |
King Solomon, who reigned around 1950 BCE reputedly sent his fleet to India, and the fabled port of Ophir was said to be in the South of the continent. He did receive ivory and peacock feathers from somewhere, but he is also said to have had ships filled with gold, something not found in the South, and it is unlikely that gold from another country was being traded. However, it is likely that his fleet reached India and traded there, whether in the South or the North. The seas between India and the Middle East were known by most of the empires of the ancient world, and these empires must have been familiar to the populations of South India. Trade routes hugged the coasts and eventually connected with the great overland routes carrying tea and silk from China. Connections between the South Eastern coast and the West of the continent were hampered by the ridge of the Western Ghats, although the Palghat Gap allowed for some to-ing and fro-ing and was one of the routes goods to Madurai, the great trading town in what is now Tamil Nadu, would have taken.
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| Roman trade: Relief from Trajan's column |
In about 302 BCE Greek ambassadors, under their leader, Megisthenes visited the Ganges plain, and there is a tradition that he reached as far South as Madurai. The city, which was the centre of the Pandyan dynasty, sent representatives to Greece and Rome and trade flourished there. He wrote a four-volume book, Indika, which has been lost in its entirety. Fragments remain and it was quoted and interpreted by later scholars such as Pliny, Strabo and Aelian. They made little of the outrageous claims Megisthenes made about the people and fauna of India, and later geographers and historians discredited his accounts. Many of his strange descriptions might be a result of language and cultural problems, although explaining these creatures could prove difficult:
"Equally absurd is the account given of the Enotokoitai, of the wild men, and of other monsters. The wild men could not be brought to Sandrakottos, for they refused to, take food and died. Their heels are in front, and the instep and toes are turned backwards. Some were brought to the court who had no mouths and were tame. They dwell near the sources of the Ganges, and subsist on the savour of roasted flesh and the perfumes of fruits and flowers, having instead of mouths orifices through which they breathe. They are distressed with things of evil smell, and hence it is with difficulty they keep their hold on life, especially in a camp. Referring to the other monstrosities, the philosophers told him of the Okupedes, a people who in running could leave the horse behind; of the Enotokoitai, who had ears reaching down to their feet, so that they could sleep in them, and were so strong that they could pull up trees and break a bowstring. Of others the Monommatoi, who have the ears of a dog, their one eye set in the middle of their forehead, the hair standing erect, and their breasts shaggy; of the Amukteres also, a people without nostrils, who devour everything, eat raw meat, and are short-lived, and die before old age supervenes. The upper part of the mouth protrudes far over the lower lip. With regard to the Hyperboreans, who live a thousand years, they give the same account"
Strabo, from Megasthenes: Indika, Trans. J. W. McCrindle
Megisthenes also described the caste system of the Indians, describing seven castes and marvelling at the fact that there were no slaves. As these accounts percolated Westwards they established India as a place of mystery and strangeness. Within India itself, the Aryan culture was spreading South with the Mauryan kingdom, which had an aggressive policy of taking its superior way of life to the less- advantaged people elsewhere. In Madurai the Pandyan dynasty was jostling with the Chola and Chera for primacy in the great age of the Tamil Sangam.
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